How do I know if I am Lactose Intolerant?

http://aprilseventheblog.blogspot.com/2015/08/lets-talk-about-lactose-intolerance.html

Definition:
Being lactose intolerant, or having lactose malabsorption, means that an individual's body is not able to properly digest the lactose sugar that is present in milk and other dairy products. This condition can cause some discomfort in the individual, such as nausea, diarrhea, bloating, gas, and/or abdominal cramps after eating or drinking a dairy product (1).

When mammals are born, they will generally live their first couple of months off of drinking milk that is produced by their mothers, therefore, the enzyme lactase is produced in the small intestines so that the baby can break down the lactose (sugar molecule) in the milk (1).

http://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-2-molecular-biology/25-enzymes/lactose-intolerance.html

On the left, there is a normal flow of lactose through the small and large intestine. As you can see, the lactose molecule comes into the small intestine and immediately becomes followed by a lactase enzyme. This lactase enzyme breaks the lactose molecule into two products, glucose and galactose. Glucose is a type of simple sugar, or monosaccharide, that you get from food that your body uses for energy (2). Galactose is also a simple sugar that is not really essential on its own, or from the consumption of dairy products, and can actually be synthesized in the body from glucose. When galactose binds to glucose it "make[s] lactose (in breast milk), to lipids to make glycolipids (for example, molecules that constitute blood groups A, B, and AB) or to proteins to make glycoproteins (for example, in cell membranes)" (3). Based on that information, we can see that the lactose in milk is very important because that lactose breaks up to create glucose and galactose. Back to the image above on the right, we can see the flow of lactose in an individual that does not produce the lactase enzyme or just not enough of it. The lactose will not be absorbed into the bloodstream (via the small intestine), therefore, the bacteria in the large intestine will interact with the undigested lactose creating the symptoms I listed above. 

https://www.reddit.com/r/MapPorn/comments/26dqdz/percentage_of_people_with_lactose_intolerance2535/

The map above shows the percentage of people that are lactose intolerant around the world. As you can see from the map above there is a distinct separation between populations who are lactose intolerant and those who aren't. It seems that the farther north you go then the percentage of lactose intolerance is much lower than places down south. Why might that be? Genetics! Now compare the map above to the more narrowed map below.

https://www.freeman-pedia.com/earlymodern

Above is a map of the Columbian exchange. As you can see, Europe and North America exchanged different kinds of foods, but I want to emphasize the arrow that goes from Europe to North America. In that arrow, one can see that livestock, primary cattle, were being traded to North America. This means that you have dairy cattle both in European countries and the Americas. This could explain why there is such a difference in the percentages of populations that are lactose intolerant. Since cows were available in Europe and North America, people had dairy invested in their diets. The other countries around the world that did not have access to cows only got their calcium and lactose when they were babies and then no longer needed the gene that coded for the production of lactase because they just wouldn't use it. Besides it being hereditary, how else can individuals have this condition? According to the Mayo Clinic (1), there are some risk factors associated with having this condition, such as:

Increasing in age: You do not generally see young children and babies having this condition because they drink milk when they are being breastfed. They also need milk to get their calcium as they continue growing, which is why this condition is generally found in teens and adults. There are many alternatives to getting the necessary nutrients found in milk which is why it does not seem like a big deal in modern times. The gene in some adults will just turn off the production of lactase leading to their condition.

Ethnicity: As shown from the map above, being lactose intolerant is more common in certain areas of the world than others. If the gene that codes for the production of lactase was not used in your ancestors, then the chances of you not producing the enzyme lactase is increased. Therefore, lactose intolerance can be passed on genetically.

Disease affecting the small intestine: Bacterial overgrowth, celiac disease, and Crohn's disease can all cause problems in the small intestine that prevents you from being able to break down the lactose sugar.

Premature birth: In the third trimester, an infant will begin to perfect its small intestines by developing lactase-producing cells, but if an infant is born prematurely, he or she would not have developed those cells efficiently.

If you are lactose intolerant and are thinking about how you will get those essential nutrients that others are able to get, do not worry, there are plenty of alternatives.

https://www.justshortofcrazy.com/enjoying-dairy-with-lactaid-a-giveaway/

As you can see from the image above, there are plenty of alternatives to your regular dairy products that include milk itself, yogurt, and ice cream! Lactase enzymes are present in these Lactaid alternative dairy products. Since people that are lactose intolerant either do not produce the lactase enzyme or do not make enough of it, these alternatives provide the enzyme already in the product along with the lactose giving you the necessary products, glucose and galactose, which is probably why the milk tastes sweeter than regular milk. So if I am lactose intolerant, can I never eat or drink regular dairy products ever again? If you are lactose intolerant, you might be able to eat small amounts of dairy at a time, but that is all dependent on the individual. Not every individual is the same, meaning that one person might be able to eat more or less dairy than others with the same condition. If you notice that you can eat a small amount, it might help to eat in a combination with other foods, such as in a sandwich, so that you are not eating a lot of dairy at once or consuming too much lactose. If you do not like any of the lactose alternatives and cannot eat small portions of dairy without discomfort, there are lactase enzyme supplements that can be taken right before you start eating (4). This enzyme supplement gives your body lactase so that if/when you do eat dairy, you will be able to break down the lactose sugars normally. Overall, nothing serious should occur if you are lactose intolerant and choose to continue eating or drinking dairy, just the unpleasant symptoms that occur once the lactose has entered the small intestines (5). I would recommend trying different ways that you can get your necessary nutrients while satisfying your cravings as well. If you do feel that your symptoms worsen while consuming items with dairy, please consult with your physician. 

Enjoy!

https://memegenerator.net/instance/20113774/dwight-schrute-false-all-lactose-intolerant-people-crave-ice-cream

https://memegenerator.net/instance/52839083/dangerously-austin-powers-eating-dairy-when-youre-lactose-intolerant-i-too-like-to-live-dangerously

References:

1)    This website provides information about being lactose intolerant, such as what it is, the symptoms, causes, and risk factors associated with the condition. Mayo Clinic Staff. Mayo Clinic. Lactose intolerance. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/lactose-intolerance/symptoms-causes/syc-20374232. Updated April 21, 2018. Accessed March 26, 2019. 

2)    This website answers the question of what glucose is. Reviewed by Michael Dansinger. WebMD. What is Glucose? https://www.webmd.com/diabetes/qa/what-is-glucose. Updated August 13, 2016. Accessed March 26. 

3)    This website gives a lot of information about galactose sugars, such as what it is, what food products is it found in, its function, how it interacts with other molecules, etc. Nutrients Review. Galactose. http://www.nutrientsreview.com/carbs/monosaccharides-galactose.html. Published October 2016. Accessed March 26, 2019. 

4)    This website provides information about what being lactose intolerant means and what supplements/ alternatives there are for teens and young adults that definitely need their calcium intake for growth. Reviewed by J. Fernando del Rosario, MD. Teens Health from Nemours. Lactose Intolerance. https://kidshealth.org/en/teens/lactose-intolerance.html. Reviewed on January 2015. Accessed March 30, 2019. 

5)    This is another website that talks about the symptoms associated with being lactose intolerance, but from this site I got information about what could happen if you continue to eat dairy products while having this certain condition. Jacquelyn Cafasso. Healthline. What Causes Lactose Intolerance? https://www.healthline.com/symptom/lactose-intolerance. Published on January 29, 2016. Accessed March 30, 2019.  

Genetically modified or Organic?

http://www.brandonturbeville.com/2017/09/big-ag-offers-more-genetic-modification.html

Oftentimes, you will encounter people that will claim that they only eat organic foods. What exactly does that mean? When an individual describes their food as being organic, they simply mean that the food is "grown without the use of pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, sewage sludge, genetically modified organisms, or ionizing radiation" (2). So what else is there? Well, there is organic food, and then there are GMOs. GMO stands for Genetically Modified Organisms. In order to create a genetically modified organism, "scientists [will] remove one or more genes from the DNA of another organism, such as [a] bacterium, virus, animal, or plant and recombine them into the DNA of the plant they want to alter" (1).

￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫
Before I continue...

What is the Process of Genetically Modifying Foods?

https://youtu.be/2G-yUuiqIZ0

This Youtube video is about five and a half minutes long and explains the process of genetically modifying foods. The video uses the papaya from Hawaii to explain the reasons why farmers and scientists had to come together and genetically modify papayas. Here are the steps:

1) Determine if GM is the best option to solve a problem.
2) Identify which gene would be the best option to solve the problem.
3) Remove the desired gene from a donor organism and transform!
￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫￫

This alteration is helpful when studying a gene's effect on other organisms or to increase the nutritional value of a specific food item.

http://wiselygreen.com/organic-food-vs-genetically-modified-food/

The image above is an example of a GMO or genetically modified food. The modification completed between the tomatoes is the obvious change in size. Now when you go into a grocery store, you can see giant produce, such as strawberries and grapes that were once much smaller. If you think about when you get a one pound container of strawberries, there are probably around 15-20 strawberries depending on the size of each strawberry (6). Now, as of this point in time, we have ~7.6 billion people on planet Earth according to Google. If we had the small, home-grown strawberry (on the right in the image below), stores would need to place more than double the number of strawberries in each container to meet the needs of each person. Since the store-bought strawberry is more than double the size of the home-grown strawberry, less of the fruit needs to be put into containers and more can be sold and dispersed to families.

https://bonnieplants.com/the-bonnie-blog/store-bought-strawberries-versus-homegrown-strawberries/

The biotechnology used for genetically modified foods was first introduced in 1973 by Herbert Boyer and Stanley Cohen. They developed a method for specifically cutting out "a gene from one organism and past[ing] it into another [organism[" (3). Their first test subject was one strain of bacteria. They transferred a gene that coded for antibiotic resistance and transferred it to the bacteria and that strain of bacteria presented the antibiotic resistance. When you think about genetic modification, you generally think about the physical transfer of one gene into another organism, but there are more natural ways to genetically modify an organism. There was a point in time when humans could not have dogs for pets, but around 30,000 BC, humans were able to domesticate some wolves, and now so many years later, we have a variety of breeds of dogs as pets. So, GMO can either mean that a gene is being physically removed from one organism and put into another or can be a modification in more a natural way over a large span of time. When an organism selects a mate, that is considered genetic modification because that organism is selecting the organism with the most favorable traits, which will then be passed down to their offspring and continue on for generations.

http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/from-corgis-to-corn-a-brief-look-at-the-long-history-of-gmo-technology/

The GMO advancements over the years, along with some of the founders, are listed in the above timeline. Why should we have GMOs? In the year 2000 from the timeline, one can see that golden rice was engineered to mitigate Vitamin A deficiency. Here is a video that gives information about golden rice:

https://youtu.be/5ts9NLOUJuM.

https://geneticliteracyproject.org/2018/02/13/golden-rice-gmo-crop-
greenpeace-hates-and-humanitarians-love/

In a shortened summary there are some developing countries that use rice as a significant part of its people's diet, and those individuals were not getting the proper nutritional value from the white rice. They were becoming more Vitamin A deficient (VAD) which caused individuals, many of them children, to go blind. Golden rice produces high levels of beta-carotene, which is found in carrots and gives them an orange appearance (4). Because of this modification, the rice grown, primarily in Asian countries, is able to convert the beta-carotene into Vitamin A, allowing those individuals to get the proper nutrients that their original diet was not granting them. You might not realize it, but there are actually a lot of genetically modified foods. Some examples include corn, soybeans, cotton, squash, sugar beets, papaya, etc. The genetic modification in corn prevents the crop against rootworms, pests, and the Asian corn borer. The modification in squash improves the crops defenses from viruses (5). So why do some people refuse GMOs? There are several answers to this question, the first claim is that God made food the way it is and it should stay that way. So sometimes an individual's reasoning is based on their religious views. Another reason is that they do not trust GM foods because it could have "toxic chemicals" that are not safe for us. Just like any other scientific discovery, it must first be tested to determine if it is effective, and then determine if it will be safe for humans and other organisms to consume. These GM foods are designed to be beneficial and help with deficiencies that may occur at a given time. Taste wise, that's based on an individual's personal preference. Some organic produce tastes better than the GM crops, and vice versa. Ultimately, you can eat what you want based on your religious, philosophical, or personal preference, but just know that genetically modified foods DO have their benefits and that not all organic/natural foods are good for you.

These natural berries might look delicious, but YOU can't eat them!

https://www.allaboutbirds.org/the-best-plants-and-trees-to-plant-for-birds-a-starter-list/

For further information about GMOs and some current research being done go to:

https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetically-modified-organisms-gmos-transgenic-crops-and-732



References:

1)   This website explains what genetically modified foods are, how they are created, and their position when it comes to genetically modified foods (which is not for it). The organic & Non-GMO report. What is Non-GMO? What are genetically modified foods? https://non-gmoreport.com/what-is-non-gmo-what-are-genetically-modified-foods/. Accessed March 20, 2019.  

2)   This website answers several questions pertaining to organic foods, such as what it is, how to know if something is organic, the cost of organic food, etc. Frequently asked questions. Organic. Org. https://organic.org/faqs/. Accessed March 22, 2019. 

3)   This Harvard website describes in detail what genetically modified organisms and how those foods came to be. Gabriel Rangel. From Corgis to Corn: A Brief Look at the Long History of GMO Technology. Harvard University the Graduate School of Arts and Science. http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/from-corgis-to-corn-a-brief-look-at-the-long-history-of-gmo-technology/. Updated August 9, 2015. Accessed March 23, 2019. 

4)   This website addressing any questions about golden rice and its benefits to developing countries. What is nutritionally enhanced Golden Rice and why is it controversial? Genetic Literacy Project. https://gmo.geneticliteracyproject.org/FAQ/whats-the-real-potential-of-golden-rice/. Accessed March 23, 2019. 

5)   This website gives examples of GM foods and what GMOs are. What Foods are Genetically Modified? Best Food Facts. https://www.bestfoodfacts.org/what-foods-are-gmo/. Updated 08/15/ 2016. Accessed March 24, 2019.  

6) This website shows you how you can visiable see if you have a pound of strawberries. Hali Bey Ramdene. Here's what 1 Pound of Strawberries looks like. Kitchn. https://www.thekitchn.com/this-is-what-1-pound-of-strawberries-looks-like-232168. Published June 7, 2016. Accessed March 24, 2019. 

How to Detect "Fake" Science: Pseudoscience

        What website are you going to be discussing in this post?

https://www.cancertutor.com/cancer-myths/

        Pseudoscience is a false belief or portrayal of science. In this blog post, I will be critiquing some of the pseudoscientific claims made on the idea that cancer has already been cured and can be cured by reverting the cancerous cells back to normal cells. It's as easy as that! Well not really... in this text, the author's argument is that everyone assumes that cancer is damage in our DNA, cancer cells are caused by microbes, and all we have to do is turn the cancerous cells back to normal cells by using electromedicine. Cancer can be passed down through family lineages but overall, cancer is the abnormal growth of cells. These cancerous cells have a disruption in their cell cycle, grow uncontrollably, and in some cases (if the cell is malignant) will invade and affect other tissues. So what exactly are some of the claims that the author is stating?




 “Dr. Royal Rife, a microbiologist, claimed a 100 percent cure rate using electromedicine to kill microbes inside the cancer cells. The American Medical Association (AMA) tried to buy him out. Rife refused so the FDA shut him down and destroyed his lab and inventory.”

“For example, Dr. Royal Rife, a microbiologist, had a 100 percent cure rate on cancer by reverting cancer cells into normal cells. He did this in the 1930s by using gentle electrical currents (which is one form of “electromedicine”) to kill the microbes which are inside the cancer cells.”

“By killing these microbes, cancer cells can be reverted into normal cells. We now know it is not even necessary to kill cancer cells, they can be reverted into normal cells.”

 Let me first define some key terms that are used in the above excerpts:

Dr. Rife was an inventor who created the rife machine that was introduced in the 1930s. This machine was meant to target and kill the supposed bacteria causing cancer within patients (1).

https://steemkr.com/blog/@ancruz/royal-rife-machine-for-cancer
Here is an image of Dr. Rife and his rife machine.

Electromedicine is a device that is designed to kill microbes in the bloodstream, lymph system, and cancer cells (2), but so far the "best and most accurate" electromedicine device that cured all cancer patients has "been destroyed."


Microbes are microscopic organisms that are so small that they cannot be seen with a naked eye. Included in the microbes category, are fungi, protists, archaea, bacteria, viruses, and microscopic animals (3).

https://www.genome.gov/27569301/2017-media-advisory-nih-to-host-workshop-on-advances-future-needs-in-human-microbiome-research/

The AMA, also known as the American Medical Association, is a national organization comprised of American physicians that "promote the science and art of medicine and the betterment of public health" (4). Their role is to ensure that procedures, practices, and protocols are safe enough and carried out for every patient. The FDA, also known as the Food and Drug Administration, is responsible for ensuring that the food and drugs we eat or ingest are safe and sanitary before dispersing it to individuals or stores (5). The FDA is the reason why we have nutritional and ingredient labels on pretty much EVERYTHING!

https://americansecuritytoday.com/fda-ama/
This is the symbol of the FDA and AMA.

Cancer, in simplistic terms, is when there is an uncontrollable or abnormal growth of cells that can invade surrounding tissues. There are many different types of cancers including, lung cancer, skin cancer, breast cancer, leukemia, lymphoma, and so many more that can be caused from a variety of different factors, ranging from genetic inheritance to just standing outside too long in the sun (6).


As I was writing this post, I obviously had to look into who Dr. Rife was, the rife machine, and what others were saying about Rife's invention and I am not going to lie, there were times when I thought could there actually be a cure for cancer that is hidden? The sad reality is that cancer is very complicated, and although it would be nice to think that we have already found the cure for it, that's just not the case. You cannot compare treating cancer to getting rid of say...strep throat. Strep throat is a bacterial infection that can be treated with antibiotics, fluids, and rest then BAM! the bacteria is gone within maybe a few days. Cancer isn't like that. Cancer is a broad term for a specific kind of cancer, like leukemia (white blood cancer) and breast cancer as I mentioned before. The physician must first determine which kind of cancer the patient has and why? The why is the reason why cancer is so hard to treat. Cancer is unique to YOU. Only a handful of YOUR cells turned cancerous, why is that? What went wrong in the growth cycle of those specific cells? How does one correct those cancerous cells without damaging the cells that grew perfectly fine?

https://www2.le.ac.uk/projects/vgec/highereducation/topics/cellcycle-mitosis-meiosis

Above is an image of a normal cell cycle. As you can see, there are specific steps that a cell must go through in order to grow correctly. There are "checkpoints," that check the work that has been done in the previous step to make sure that the cell is in the right condition before continuing on. For example, in the S phase, the cell is supposed to have duplicated its chromosomes so that there are two copies. This is necessary because when the cell splits during mitosis, each new cell needs to have the correct amount of chromosomes. To ensure that the cell underwent the S phase correctly, it will enter the G2 phase (one of the checkpoints) to get checked before proceeding into mitosis.

https://drjockers.com/cancer-cells/

In the image above you can see the difference between a normal cell and a cancer cell. In the normal cell division (on the left), if there is a mistake, that cell will undergo apoptosis, meaning programmed cell death. In the cancer cell division (on the right), the cells divide very rapidly and create more cells than normal, even if there is a mistake.

Watch this video to be able to visualize and compare how a normal and cancer cell divides.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IeUANxFVXKc

From the above video, you can see how the cancer cell divides so rapidly, that it may appear that they will never stop dividing. This is why the Rife machine cannot work and why the machine is not used today. It was never thoroughly evaluated (which everything in science needs to be reviewed before it can ever be used), which is why the excerpts and website I used above are considered pseudoscience. With any topic, whether it's scientific, political, etc. don't just take a few people's words on it, do your own research, look into a variety of different sources that both support and oppose the topic you are researching. If you still do not trust doctors about whether there is a "secret" cure for cancer or not, then ask someone who studies and really understands how cells work. There are professionals such as molecular and cellular biologists who have studied how cells work and grow. Never limit yourself to having the most accurate data, it does take some time but in the end, you'll be more knowledgable about any given topic and will be able to detect pieces of pseudoscience, similar to the website I have provided above. Stay curious and never stop doing your research!

https://thosedays.be/thoughts/stay-curious-1#

References:

1) This website explains why the rife machine would not work as effectively as some who support the rife machine might think. Andrew Weil, M.D. Dr. Weil. Ready for Rife? https://www.drweil.com/health-wellness/balanced-living/technology/ready-for-rife/. Published on April 30, 2012. Accessed March 8, 2019.

2) This website describes what electromedicine is and why it should be used in present times to help cure cancer. Cancer Tutor team. Cancer Tutor. Introduction to electromedicine in alternative medicine.  https://www.cancertutor.com/introduction-electromedicine-alternative-medicine/. Updated November 8, 2016. Accessed March 8, 2019.

3) This website briefly describes what microbes are and then goes into a little more detail about individual groups of microbes. Learn. Genetics. What are Microbes? https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/microbiome/intro/. Accessed March 8, 2019.

4) This website describes what the AMA is and what it's meant to do. The editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica. American Medical Association. https://www.britannica.com/topic/American-Medical-Association. Accessed March 9, 2019.

5 ) This website briefly explains what the FDA is responsible for. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. What we do. https://www.fda.gov/aboutfda/whatwedo/. Updated 03/28/2018. Accessed March 9, 2019.

6) This website gives a lot of details about what cancer is, how can one get cancer, and some treatments that are currently being used to try to treat cancer patients. Rachel Nall. Medical News Today. What to know about Cancer. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323648.php. Updated November 12, 2018. Accessed March 10, 2019.

Answering the main question about electron carriers:

“HOW CAN I POSSIBLY KNOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ALL THESE ELECTRON CARRIERS AND COENZYMES?”

	ATP	ADP		NAD+	NADH		FAD
What is the scientific name of this carrier?	Adenosine Triphosphate	Adenosine Diphosphate		Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide	Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide		Flavin adenine dinucleotide
THE	IMAGES FOR EACH	OF THE CARRIERS		IS LOCATED AT	THE BOTTOM OF		THE PAGE!!!!
What is its function?	When ATP is hydrolyzed (meaning broken down by water in a reaction), it can donate one level of energy one phosphate group to become ADP, or it can donate twice the energy and two phosphate groups to become AMP (1).	The function of ATP is very similar to that of ATP, except that ADP is what transforms into ATP. Once ATP has lost a phosphate group (and energy), it converts back into ADP the cycle continues. ADP gets released from our blood vessels to bind to our platelets when we get a cut (so the formation of a scab), and ADP is also used for repairing any cell damage.  (3).		Its function is to turn nutrients into energy, which is involved in metabolic processes and helps proteins that have to regulate other biological functions, such as “regulating oxidative stress and circadian rhythms while maintaining the health of DNA and keeping humans healthier” (5).	This coenzyme is also used for the production of energy, but it also stimulates the dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin receptors which are associated with our mental alertness and concentration. A study has shown that when “when subjects who received NADH had a significantly better cognitive performance and a trend toward reduced sleepiness, post flight” (8).		FAD and NAD+ are very similar in that they are electron carriers that make something else, NAD+ to NADH and FAD to FADH2. Some differences between the two are that FAD can accept 2 hydrogens which then the FAD will get reduced to FADH2(10).
In what process is it  involved  in?	Active Transportation (which allows macromolecules, like proteins and lipids to enter and exit the cell), Cell signaling, muscle contraction (it binds to myosin to give it energy so that the myosin can then bind to actin and the process continues for every new muscle contraction), and in the synthesis of DNA and RNA (1).	ADP is involved in cellular respiration, where is turns our food into ATP molecules (4).		“NAD+ is used in redox reactions in the cell and acts as a reducing agent” (7). Redox meaning reduction and oxidation:  Reduction= a gain of electrons Oxidation= loss of electrons (OIL RIG) Being that NAD+ is a reducing agent which implies that it allows something else to undergo a reduction while it (NAD+) undergoes oxidation.	NADH is involved with oxidation in cell processes like glycolysis (helps oxidize the glucose). NAD+ being the reducing agent, allows NADH to undergo reduction. NADH gets its energy that it stores from aerobic cellular respiration and “powers the electron transport process in the membranes of mitochondria” (7).		FAD is also involved in cellular respiration during the redox reactions. As you can see, all of these electron carriers are required for cellular respiration (11).
How is it created?	~ Consists of a nitrogenous base(adenine), a ribose sugar, and 3 phosphate groups (it is a nucleotide!). ~ ATP is created by ATP synthase (ATP creating enzyme) generally in the membrane of the mitochondria or chloroplast (2).	~ ADP is also considered a nucleotide because it has a nitrogenous base (adenine) and a sugar. They differ from ATP in that they have 2 phosphate groups rather than the 3 in ATP.		~ In order to create this coenzyme, we must first have the formation of nicotinate ribonucleotide from nicotinate (vitamin B6) and PRPP (6).  ~ It is basically two nucleotides that are joined by their phosphate groups.	~ NADH is the high energy form of NAD+. It gets into this high energy state by accepting two electrons and a hydrogen atom (7).		~ When riboflavin and two ATP molecules are combined, a FAD coenzyme is synthesized (6).
Why is it important?	Everything in your body uses and needs energy. You need this energy to move and get through your day. That is why ATP is important because, in order for the systems in your body to keep you alive and do the job that is required of them, they need the energy from ATP to do it.	Similarly, to the reason why ATP is important, ADP is necessary for all life on earth because of the energy it stores. Without ADP we would not be able to convert the energy from our food into a more usable form, known as ATP.		Just like the first two energy carriers I have discussed, NAD+ is very important for life otherwise, we wouldn’t have such a thing. It helps with processes, such as metabolism and DNA repair. In the 1900s, an NAD+ precursor was used to help alleviate the pellagra disease that swept the American South (5). NAD+ keeps finding new ways to be useful in our everyday circumstances.	NADH is important for transporting or carrying electrons to the mitochondria so the cell can “harvest the energy stored in the electrons” (9). Cellular respiration is the process that allows take in oxygen and release CO2. Cellular respiration used glucose and oxygen to make CO2 and ATP (9). Without NADH transporting the electrons, the proteins in the mitochondria would not be able to make ATP.		Once the FADH2 has oxidized back to FAD, 2 moles of ATP are formed (11). As you can see, these electron carriers (and coenzymes) play a very similar role in cellular respiration in that they transfer electrons so that the cell can make energy.  This is why FAD, and all the other electron carriers I have discussed, are so necessary for life! Compare this process to how you charge your phone: You plug in your phone to the wall outlet where the electricity is stored and can eventually get transferred, then the battery life on your phone is restored. If you couldn’t charge your phone, it would use up whatever battery percentage was left and eventually die.
What is a simplified (or summarized) version that differentiates this carrier from the others?	Lose a phosphate group and you now have the energy to start a cellular process and turn into ADP! One step further and lose 2 phosphate and 2 energy levels ATP can turn into AMP!	ADP makes ATP ADP <-- --> ATP		NAD+: ~ Reducing agent ~  helps the regulatory proteins ~ the pellagra precursor	Low energy NAD+ <-- -->NADH  High energy ~ Transports electrons which then get turned into usable energy, or ATP. ~ The “psychology” coenzyme.		Similar to NAD+ but: ~ Accepts 2 H. ~ Forms FADH2.
Helpful video links for more information!	https://youtu.be/PK6HmIe2EAg	https://youtu.be/W3cXk6BYV-s		https://youtu.be/loBAdwgtiIE	https://youtu.be/Qp0LyjvVils (Contains information about NAD and NADH)		https://youtu.be/eL_iVLHT9Q0 (Contains information about NAD+ and FAD+)

 WHAT DO THEY LOOK LIKE?

ATP:

https://www.luminultra.com/what-is-atp-and-what-does-it-do/

ADP:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_diphosphate

NAD+ AND NADH:

https://www.bioserendipity.com/anti-aging-supplements-ii/

FAD:

https://www.slideshare.net/rukkurugma/fad-flavin-adenine-dinucleotide

References:

(1)   This website describes the role of Adenosine Triphosphate from within the cells. Cheriyedath, S. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Function in Cells. News Medical Life Sciences. https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/Adenosine-Triphosphate-(ATP)-Function-in-Cells.aspx. Updated February 26, 2019. Accessed March 1, 2019.

(2)   This website briefly describes the function, creation, and structure of ATP. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Adenosine triphosphate coenzyme. Encyclopaedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/adenosine-triphosphate. Accessed March 1, 2019. 

(3)   This website briefly talks about the relationship between ATP and ADP and their functions. Gaughan, R. What does ADP in Biology Do? Sciencing. https://sciencing.com/what-does-adp-in-biology-do-12072977.html. Updated June 25, 2018. Accessed March 2, 2019. 

(4)   This website describes how ADP turns into ATP. How does ADP become ATP? Study. https://study.com/academy/answer/how-does-adp-become-atp.html. Accessed March 2, 2019. 

(5)   This website describes the function of NAD+ and its involvement with our health and aging. What is NAD+ and Why is it important for Aging and Health? Elysium Health. https://www.elysiumhealth.com/en-us/knowledge/science-101/everything-you-need-to-know-about-nicotinamide-adenine-dinucleotide-nad. Accessed March 2, 2019. 

(6)   From this website, I used the basic formula to get NAD+, but the overall site discusses the formation of how NAD+, FAD, and other coenzymes are formed. Section 25.5 NAD+, FAD, and Coenzyme A are Formed from ATP. NCBI. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22576/. Accessed March 2, 2019. 

(7)   This website briefly describes the function and structure of NAD+ and NADPH. NAD (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide). Hyper Physics. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Organic/nad.html. Accessed March 2, 2019. 

(8)   This website gives an overview of many of the coenzymes and if the readers find themselves interested in a specific coenzyme, they can click and read the full chapter on that specific coenzyme! McLellan, S. Jet Lag NADH. Science Direct. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/nicotinamide-adenine-dinucleotide. Published in 2013. Accessed March 2, 2019. 

(9)   This website describes the involvement of NADH in the processes within cellular respiration. Robb, A. Role of NADH in Cellular Respiration. Study. https://study.com/academy/lesson/role-of-nadh-in-cellular-respiration.html. Accessed March 3, 2019. 

(10)This website briefly compares and differentiates NAD+ and FAD. Prabhat, S. Difference between NAD and FAD. Difference Between. http://www.differencebetween.net/science/difference-between-nad-and-fad/. Published July 28, 2011. Accessed March 3, 2019. 

(11)This website briefly discusses some key details about FAD. FAD-Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide. Hyper Physics. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Organic/fad.html#c1. Accessed March 3, 2019.