Answering the main question about electron carriers:

“HOW CAN I POSSIBLY KNOW THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ALL THESE ELECTRON CARRIERS AND COENZYMES?”

	ATP	ADP		NAD+	NADH		FAD
What is the scientific name of this carrier?	Adenosine Triphosphate	Adenosine Diphosphate		Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide	Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide		Flavin adenine dinucleotide
THE	IMAGES FOR EACH	OF THE CARRIERS		IS LOCATED AT	THE BOTTOM OF		THE PAGE!!!!
What is its function?	When ATP is hydrolyzed (meaning broken down by water in a reaction), it can donate one level of energy one phosphate group to become ADP, or it can donate twice the energy and two phosphate groups to become AMP (1).	The function of ATP is very similar to that of ATP, except that ADP is what transforms into ATP. Once ATP has lost a phosphate group (and energy), it converts back into ADP the cycle continues. ADP gets released from our blood vessels to bind to our platelets when we get a cut (so the formation of a scab), and ADP is also used for repairing any cell damage.  (3).		Its function is to turn nutrients into energy, which is involved in metabolic processes and helps proteins that have to regulate other biological functions, such as “regulating oxidative stress and circadian rhythms while maintaining the health of DNA and keeping humans healthier” (5).	This coenzyme is also used for the production of energy, but it also stimulates the dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin receptors which are associated with our mental alertness and concentration. A study has shown that when “when subjects who received NADH had a significantly better cognitive performance and a trend toward reduced sleepiness, post flight” (8).		FAD and NAD+ are very similar in that they are electron carriers that make something else, NAD+ to NADH and FAD to FADH2. Some differences between the two are that FAD can accept 2 hydrogens which then the FAD will get reduced to FADH2(10).
In what process is it  involved  in?	Active Transportation (which allows macromolecules, like proteins and lipids to enter and exit the cell), Cell signaling, muscle contraction (it binds to myosin to give it energy so that the myosin can then bind to actin and the process continues for every new muscle contraction), and in the synthesis of DNA and RNA (1).	ADP is involved in cellular respiration, where is turns our food into ATP molecules (4).		“NAD+ is used in redox reactions in the cell and acts as a reducing agent” (7). Redox meaning reduction and oxidation:  Reduction= a gain of electrons Oxidation= loss of electrons (OIL RIG) Being that NAD+ is a reducing agent which implies that it allows something else to undergo a reduction while it (NAD+) undergoes oxidation.	NADH is involved with oxidation in cell processes like glycolysis (helps oxidize the glucose). NAD+ being the reducing agent, allows NADH to undergo reduction. NADH gets its energy that it stores from aerobic cellular respiration and “powers the electron transport process in the membranes of mitochondria” (7).		FAD is also involved in cellular respiration during the redox reactions. As you can see, all of these electron carriers are required for cellular respiration (11).
How is it created?	~ Consists of a nitrogenous base(adenine), a ribose sugar, and 3 phosphate groups (it is a nucleotide!). ~ ATP is created by ATP synthase (ATP creating enzyme) generally in the membrane of the mitochondria or chloroplast (2).	~ ADP is also considered a nucleotide because it has a nitrogenous base (adenine) and a sugar. They differ from ATP in that they have 2 phosphate groups rather than the 3 in ATP.		~ In order to create this coenzyme, we must first have the formation of nicotinate ribonucleotide from nicotinate (vitamin B6) and PRPP (6).  ~ It is basically two nucleotides that are joined by their phosphate groups.	~ NADH is the high energy form of NAD+. It gets into this high energy state by accepting two electrons and a hydrogen atom (7).		~ When riboflavin and two ATP molecules are combined, a FAD coenzyme is synthesized (6).
Why is it important?	Everything in your body uses and needs energy. You need this energy to move and get through your day. That is why ATP is important because, in order for the systems in your body to keep you alive and do the job that is required of them, they need the energy from ATP to do it.	Similarly, to the reason why ATP is important, ADP is necessary for all life on earth because of the energy it stores. Without ADP we would not be able to convert the energy from our food into a more usable form, known as ATP.		Just like the first two energy carriers I have discussed, NAD+ is very important for life otherwise, we wouldn’t have such a thing. It helps with processes, such as metabolism and DNA repair. In the 1900s, an NAD+ precursor was used to help alleviate the pellagra disease that swept the American South (5). NAD+ keeps finding new ways to be useful in our everyday circumstances.	NADH is important for transporting or carrying electrons to the mitochondria so the cell can “harvest the energy stored in the electrons” (9). Cellular respiration is the process that allows take in oxygen and release CO2. Cellular respiration used glucose and oxygen to make CO2 and ATP (9). Without NADH transporting the electrons, the proteins in the mitochondria would not be able to make ATP.		Once the FADH2 has oxidized back to FAD, 2 moles of ATP are formed (11). As you can see, these electron carriers (and coenzymes) play a very similar role in cellular respiration in that they transfer electrons so that the cell can make energy.  This is why FAD, and all the other electron carriers I have discussed, are so necessary for life! Compare this process to how you charge your phone: You plug in your phone to the wall outlet where the electricity is stored and can eventually get transferred, then the battery life on your phone is restored. If you couldn’t charge your phone, it would use up whatever battery percentage was left and eventually die.
What is a simplified (or summarized) version that differentiates this carrier from the others?	Lose a phosphate group and you now have the energy to start a cellular process and turn into ADP! One step further and lose 2 phosphate and 2 energy levels ATP can turn into AMP!	ADP makes ATP ADP <-- --> ATP		NAD+: ~ Reducing agent ~  helps the regulatory proteins ~ the pellagra precursor	Low energy NAD+ <-- -->NADH  High energy ~ Transports electrons which then get turned into usable energy, or ATP. ~ The “psychology” coenzyme.		Similar to NAD+ but: ~ Accepts 2 H. ~ Forms FADH2.
Helpful video links for more information!	https://youtu.be/PK6HmIe2EAg	https://youtu.be/W3cXk6BYV-s		https://youtu.be/loBAdwgtiIE	https://youtu.be/Qp0LyjvVils (Contains information about NAD and NADH)		https://youtu.be/eL_iVLHT9Q0 (Contains information about NAD+ and FAD+)

 WHAT DO THEY LOOK LIKE?

ATP:

https://www.luminultra.com/what-is-atp-and-what-does-it-do/

ADP:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_diphosphate

NAD+ AND NADH:

https://www.bioserendipity.com/anti-aging-supplements-ii/

FAD:

https://www.slideshare.net/rukkurugma/fad-flavin-adenine-dinucleotide

References:

(1)   This website describes the role of Adenosine Triphosphate from within the cells. Cheriyedath, S. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Function in Cells. News Medical Life Sciences. https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/Adenosine-Triphosphate-(ATP)-Function-in-Cells.aspx. Updated February 26, 2019. Accessed March 1, 2019.

(2)   This website briefly describes the function, creation, and structure of ATP. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Adenosine triphosphate coenzyme. Encyclopaedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/adenosine-triphosphate. Accessed March 1, 2019. 

(3)   This website briefly talks about the relationship between ATP and ADP and their functions. Gaughan, R. What does ADP in Biology Do? Sciencing. https://sciencing.com/what-does-adp-in-biology-do-12072977.html. Updated June 25, 2018. Accessed March 2, 2019. 

(4)   This website describes how ADP turns into ATP. How does ADP become ATP? Study. https://study.com/academy/answer/how-does-adp-become-atp.html. Accessed March 2, 2019. 

(5)   This website describes the function of NAD+ and its involvement with our health and aging. What is NAD+ and Why is it important for Aging and Health? Elysium Health. https://www.elysiumhealth.com/en-us/knowledge/science-101/everything-you-need-to-know-about-nicotinamide-adenine-dinucleotide-nad. Accessed March 2, 2019. 

(6)   From this website, I used the basic formula to get NAD+, but the overall site discusses the formation of how NAD+, FAD, and other coenzymes are formed. Section 25.5 NAD+, FAD, and Coenzyme A are Formed from ATP. NCBI. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22576/. Accessed March 2, 2019. 

(7)   This website briefly describes the function and structure of NAD+ and NADPH. NAD (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide). Hyper Physics. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Organic/nad.html. Accessed March 2, 2019. 

(8)   This website gives an overview of many of the coenzymes and if the readers find themselves interested in a specific coenzyme, they can click and read the full chapter on that specific coenzyme! McLellan, S. Jet Lag NADH. Science Direct. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/nicotinamide-adenine-dinucleotide. Published in 2013. Accessed March 2, 2019. 

(9)   This website describes the involvement of NADH in the processes within cellular respiration. Robb, A. Role of NADH in Cellular Respiration. Study. https://study.com/academy/lesson/role-of-nadh-in-cellular-respiration.html. Accessed March 3, 2019. 

(10)This website briefly compares and differentiates NAD+ and FAD. Prabhat, S. Difference between NAD and FAD. Difference Between. http://www.differencebetween.net/science/difference-between-nad-and-fad/. Published July 28, 2011. Accessed March 3, 2019. 

(11)This website briefly discusses some key details about FAD. FAD-Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide. Hyper Physics. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Organic/fad.html#c1. Accessed March 3, 2019.